2nd Chapter –
Language and Culture
Short questions
1. What
is language?
Language is defined as a
system that uses sounds or written symbols to communicate. This is a system of
communication used by human beings only. The study of language is called
linguistics. Language is based upon words and combination of words into
sentences. The smallest unit of language is ‘sign’ which is a combination of
‘the concept and the sound image. The concept is called the signified and the
sound image the signifier.
2. Define
culture?
Culture is defined as the sum
total of ways of living built up by a group of human beings, transmitted from
one generation to another. Food, clothing, celebrations, religion, and
language, shared values, customs, histories, knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals,
law and habits are included in the definition of culture. Above all, culture is
a symbolic meaning system.
3. Who
wrote ‘ A Course in General Linguistics’ ?
‘A Course in General
Linguistics’ was written by the great Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure.
4. How
can we define meaning?
In his famous book titled ‘A
Course of General Linguistics’ Ferdinand de Saussure developed the theory of
the ‘sign’ which is the combination of the concept and the sound image. The
concept is the signified and the sound image is the signifier. The relationship
between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary. So meaning is defined as
the relationship between words. In short language is a link between thought and
sound.
5. Distinguish
between langue and parole
In his famous book title ‘A
Course of General Linguistics’ Ferdinand de Saussure defines Langue and Parole.
Langue is the actual language spoken by people, for example Malayalam, English
Tamil etc.
Parole is the individual
speech act.
6. Define
Genderlect
Genderlect is a product of
social context. Deborah Tannen, a Harward Professor found out many differences
in the masculine and feminine styles of discourse. There is a belief that women
talk more than men. But in research it is found that men talk more than women
in meetings, debates and on other occasions. Women’s speech style is always
co-operative, whereas men are highly competitive. Similarly, women are always
uncertain in their talk and they often use the words, ‘I think”, I’m sure”, “you know”. Women always use more standard
forms of English, whereas men use non standard forms frequently.
7. Define
Sociolect
People of different
geographical areas who speak different languages will think and behave
differently depending on the language they use.
Thus the sociological environment of a person determines the type of
language he or she uses. These variations in a language are called a Sociolect.
8. Distinguish
between Pidgin and Creole
Pidgin is a term used to
define the language that is born out of the regular contact of two linguistic
groups that have no language in common. A Pidgin is a restricted language which
arises for the purpose of communication between two social groups of one is in
a more dominant position than the other. The less dominant group develops the
Pidgin. Historically Pidgin is born in colonial situations. In India the people
who are known as ‘Anglo-Indians speak Pidgin. There are Indian-English,
Australian English, African English which are called Creoles.
In the course of several
generations the Pidgin is developed into the mother-tongue of a group of
speakers. Such languages are called Creoles.
9. Define
social constructionism
Social Construction of Reality
is a term coined by Peter Berger and Thomas Luckman in their book titled “The
Social Construction of Reality”. It says that our reality is shaped by our
life experiences and the way we interact with people around us. Our
upbringing and our value systems have deep impact on how we present ourselves
how we understand others. In a society, social interaction leads to the
creation of knowledge. This knowledge includes, beliefs, superstitious ideas,
folklores, proverbs, religious ideas, customs, traditional values which have
become part of the social system, a process that is called institutionalization.
This institutionalization leads to habitualization. This set of beliefs
that emerge through practice and institutionalization is called symbolic
universes. Thus our reality is
shaped by our beliefs and back grounds. Society exists both outside as well as
inside our minds. Thus, we the humans are always making and remaking our
society. This is called social constructionism.
10. What
is nativism?
Nativism is an argument that
writing in English encourages the continuity of colonial oppression, and as
long as we continue to write in English, we cannot be free from the colonial
oppression.
Many writers like Balachandra
Nemde argues that we should write in our mother tongues. But novelists like
Salman Rushdie says that post colonial writers Indigenized and nativised
English language through the device of ‘chutnification’ and mixing of regional
languages with English. Thus there are Indian English, Hinglish, Mangleesh etc.
Paragraph questions
11. “The
‘real world’ is to a large extent unconsciously built upon the language habits
of the group” – Comment.
Language is defined as a
system that uses sounds or written symbols to communicate. Only human beings
use this symbolic system of communication. It is a system of communication
based upon words or ‘signs’ . A sign is the combination of a signifier (sound
image) and a concept (the signified). Language is used as a vehicle of
thought and ideas. Thus language has
become an integral part of human life. As a result he lives in many worlds.
First he lives in an objective (real) world and in the world of social activity
which is the second world and finally he lives in the world of ideas and
thoughts. Thus we are very much at the mercy of the particular language which
has become the medium of expression for their society. The ‘real world’ is to a
large extent unconsciously built upon the language habits of the group. Every
language shows quite different social reality. The worlds in which different
societies who speak different languages live in very different worlds. So
people of different geographical areas
who speak different languages think and behave differently. English man
thinks and behaves differently from a Malayalee. These variations in a language
is called a sociolect.
12. Why
is culture called a symbolic meaning system?
Culture is defined as the sum
total of ways of living built up by a group of human beings, transmitted from
one generation to another. Food, clothing, celebrations, religion, and
language, shared values, customs, histories, knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals,
law and habits are included in the definition of culture. Above all, culture is
a symbolic meaning system. It is semiotic system in which symbols communicate.
Culture is inherited socially and share by all community.
13. Discuss
the relationship between language and culture.
There is a strong relationship
between culture and language. Meaning of words is shared between speakers of
the same language. But there are some symbols which are similar the world over.
Example traffic rules. When we live in a
certain way, we use the language in tune with our life style and status. The
language of a teacher, a priest and collector, magistrate contains upper
vocabulary. The language and dialect of
the upper class is different from that of the lower class. In Malayalam, M.T.Vasudevan Nair and Kamala
Surayya used the ‘Valluvanadan dialect, which is considered as an upper class
one. The Eskimos have seven different words to denote ‘snow’ as it is an
integral part of their life. The Swiss
linguist Ferdinand de Saussure developed
the “theory of sign” which is a combination of two elements namely the concept
and the sound image (the signified and the signifier). This shows the progress
of our culture.
14. What
is discourse? How is it connected to culture?
Discourse is an integral aspect of agency in
language. Discourse is defined as both written and spoken communication. Discourse means specific choice of words or
vocabulary used in various fields of social life such as legal discourse,
medical discourse, teaching discourse, religious discourse and so on. These
discourses show their belief systems, values and socio-cultural experiences
over a period of time. The discourse reflects the rights and duties of an
individual in a particular social position. For example the discourse of a
class room positions the teacher as one who will impart knowledge and the
students as willing to accept the knowledge. Here the teacher wields power over
the students. Thus discourse is intimately connected to culture.
15. Analyse
the concept of identities
Identity is something that we
are constantly building and planning throughout our lives through our
interaction with others. Identity is neither fixed nor intrinsic. It is a
socially constructed dynamic product of the social, political contexts of an
individual’s livid experiences. This is
an anti-essentialist concept of identity. Our social identities are defined by
our membership in various groups along with the values, beliefs and attitudes
connected with them. There are four types of identities. (1) Master identities.
These identities are relatively stable, unchanging. Eg., gender, ethnicity,
national and regional origins.
(2) Interactional identities.
Eg. I am a teacher to my students. While travelling I am a passenger, In my apartment,
I am some one’s neighbor. If I am sick, I am a patient to a doctor and so on.
(3) Personal identities are
relatively stable. Eg. Honest, reasonable, arrogant, but personal identities
are frequently contested. (4) Relational
identities change from moment to moment. It refers to the kind of relationship
that a person enacts with his/her partner in a situation such as conversation,
way side talk etc.
16. Is
English a gendered language?
17. Comment on the influence of gender
on the use of language
Yes, English is certainly a
gendered language where we can find genderlect very clearly. There is utter
discrimination against women. English speakers and writers tend to use
masculine nouns and pronouns in situations where the gender of their subject is
not mentioned and when they refer to a group which contains members of both
sexes, the word ‘mankind’ was used. Thus the preference goes to man. Similarly,
chairman, police man, post man and certain professions such as doctor, sir,
driver, engineer all give preference to man not woman. ‘man’ and words ending
in ‘man’ are the most commonly used gendered nouns. When we say that all men
are equal, we are certainly excluding woman. Another example of English as
gendered language is the way the words ‘Mr’, ‘Miss’, and ‘Mrs.’ Are used. ‘Mr.’
can refer to any man married or unmarried. But women are different! Women are
defined by their relationship to men. In modern time we use the title ‘Ms’ to
woman whether married or not. Another
example to show English a gendered language is about professional names. People
think doctors are men whereas nurses female!
18. Discuss language with reference to
the caste system in India
Language is an integral part
of human culture. In India, language is mixed with caste and religion, because
caste is inseparable aspect of the identity.
Identity politics is shaped by the shared experiences of members of
certain social groups. Identity politics work for empowerment and recognition
of social groups. The identity markers are language, culture, ethnicity,
gender, sexual preference, caste positions, religion, tribe and race. In India, caste specific names fix the
identity of a person. Inferior caste names are used in a low (derogatory)
sense. Mahatma Gandhi used a new term ‘Harijan’
(God’s children) to describe the untouchables, but they rejected it. They
accepted the term ‘Dalit’ which reflects their painful life. Similarly the
terms like Scheduled caste, scheduled tribes are neutral and do not have any
derogatory sense in it. The dialects
spoken by different castes, their speech styles are also considered as ignorant
or backward, whereas the speech style of the upper caste has a label of
acceptance.
19. What is linguistic
imperialism?
The term ‘linguistic imperialism’ was first
used by Robert Philipson. It refers to the imposition of the language spoken by
the dominant class to others. It is not only language, but culture, religion,
way of life and style are also imposed on the native people by the ruling,
dominant class. It happened in India and many other countries where the British
had set up colonies. The great writer
Cooke uses the term ‘Trojan Horse’ for linguistic imperialism, because just
like the gift of the Trojan Horse by the Greeks to the people of Troy, English
language was welcomed in India in the beginning as a gift of the British to
eliminate ignorance, superstitious customs and give education to the people of
India, finally turned out to be a curse and trap for India, because English
education destroyed Indian languages, culture, traditional values and
religion. In British colonies where
native languages came in contact with English language, produced new languages
that can be either called Pidigins or Creoles, new dialects of English
languages, such as Australian English, South African English, Indian English
and so on.
20. Was the Englishing of India a
successful venture?
The Englishing of India was
partly a successful venture because the Europeans tried to spread Christian
religion through Missionaries for this purpose they set up schools and colleges
to give English education to the natives. This followed social and religious
reforms helped to eliminate many social evils such as ‘Sati, female foeticide,
untouchability and other superstitious ideas. English education helped people
of different states and communities to communicate and exchange ideas of
nationalism. Above all English education fostered national unity and the
awareness of freedom and equality. But Englishing of India has brought many
evils too. It destroyed regional languages, traditional values and habits. It
imposed western culture and habits and the native children followed the life
style and religion of the ruling class which brought them nothing but illusion
because the blacks cannot become whites.
Essay questions
21. How does language create
subjectivity?
Emile Benvenists, the great
French linguist said that it is language which gives human being a sense of
their subjectivity. Language alone gives man the concept of ‘ego. Language
possesses a special property which creates subjectivity. It is through discourse that a speaker or
writer established his/her subjectivity. It is through ‘Parole that people
establish a sense of their own subjectivity. The speaker or writer has got the
personal pronoun ‘I’ and ‘You’. They
refer to a particular individual and at the same time other individuals can
utilize the same term to refer to themselves. Thus language allows each speaker
to designate himself or herself ‘I’. This is the core of the subjectivity that
language provides every person.
22. Language not only expresses ideas
and concepts, but shapes thought. Comment with examples to justify your answer.
Language is defined as a system that uses
sounds or written symbols to communicate. Only human beings use this symbolic
system of communication. It is a system of communication based upon words or
‘signs’ . A sign is the combination of a signifier (sound image) and a concept
(the signified). Language is used as a vehicle of thought and ideas. Thus language has become an integral part of
human life. As a result he lives in many worlds. First he lives in an objective
(real) world and in the world of social activity which is the second world and
finally he lives in the world of ideas and thoughts. Thus we are very much at
the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression
for their society. The ‘real world’ is to a large extent unconsciously built
upon the language habits of the group. Every language shows quite different
social reality. The worlds in which different societies who speak different
languages live in very different worlds. So people of different geographical
areas who speak different languages think and behave differently. English man
thinks and behaves differently from a Malayalee. These variations in a language
are called a sociolect.
There is a strong relationship
between culture and language. Meaning of words is shared between speakers of
the same language. But there are some symbols which are similar the world over.
Example traffic rules. When we live in a
certain way, we use the language in tune with our life style and status. The
language of a teacher, a priest and collector, magistrate contains upper
vocabulary. The language and dialect of
the upper class is different from that of the lower class. In Malayalam, M.T.Vasudevan Nair and Kamala
Surayya used the ‘Valluvanadan dialect, which is considered as an upper class
one. The Eskimos have seven different words to denote ‘snow’ as it is an
integral part of their life. The Swiss
linguist Ferdinand de Saussure developed
the “theory of sign” which is a combination of two elements namely the concept
and the sound image (the signified and the signifier). This shows the progress
of our culture.
23. Discuss the cultural impact of
Lord Macaulay’s Minutes
English arrived in India as
the language of Imperial power. It replaced Sanskrit and Persian as the language
of administration. Warren Hastings, T.B. Macaulay, William Jones and others
studied Indian languages of Sanskrit and Persian, and translated texts into
English. In the second stage of introducing English in India, Missionaries like
William Carey learned local languages and translated the Bible into these
languages.
In the third stage, English was made the
medium of instruction in schools and colleges. The Minutes of 1835 prepared by
Lord Macaulay was passed in the British parliament and English became the
language of education, law and commerce.
With the introduction of English education, western ideas, the
conversion of natives to Christian religion and western culture and habits
began to spread in India. This helped to eliminate many social evils. This
followed social and religious reforms helped to eliminate many social evils
such as ‘Sati, female foeticide, untouchability and other superstitious ideas.
English education helped people of different states and communities to
communicate and exchange ideas of nationalism.
Above all English education fostered national
unity and the awareness of freedom and equality. But Englishing of India has
brought many evils too. It destroyed regional languages, traditional values and
habits. It imposed western culture and habits and the native children followed
the life style and religion of the ruling class which brought them nothing but
illusion because the blacks cannot become whites. The first Indian novels in
the 19th century were inspired by English novels. Many English
novels were translated into Indian
languages. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s “Anandamath’ was translated in English
and other European languages. This novel contained our national song ‘Vande
Mataram’ that inspired the nationalists in India. R.K. Narayan, Raja Rao wrote
novels in English expressed nationalist sentiments. The forward to “Kanthapura” reflect this
national spirit.
24.
Discuss the various levels of reality with proper theoretical analysis.
Social Construction of Reality is a term
coined by Peter Berger and Thomas Luckman in their book titled “The Social
Construction of Reality”. It says that our reality is shaped by our life
experiences and the way we interact with people around us. There are various
levels of reality. Our upbringing and our value systems have deep impact on
how we present ourselves how we understand others. In a society, social
interaction leads to the creation of knowledge. This knowledge includes,
beliefs, superstitious ideas, folklores, proverbs, religious ideas, customs,
mythology, traditional values which have become part of the social system, a
process that is called institutionalization. This institutionalization
leads to habitualization. This set of beliefs that emerge through
practice and institutionalization is called symbolic universes. Thus our reality is shaped by our beliefs
and back grounds. Society exists both outside as well as inside our minds.
Thus, we the humans are always making and remaking our society. This is called
social constructionism.
25. Discuss historiography focusing
on language
History is revealed through
language. Historiography is the history of history. It means the subject of
historiography is the history of history. It is the history of the history of
any particular event that has been described. The underlying sentiment of
historiography is skepticism (doubt).
This is due to the fact that historians have their own agendas and wants
to prove a particular event in the past as favourable for him and therefore
select a particular event in the past and wish to prove certain preconceived
notions or points. History is therefore never truly objective (honest) or
impartial. For example the concept of nationalism is defined as loyalty and
devotion to a nation state. So the historian uses chosen phrases and words to
prove the loyalty to a particular nation or culture and considers it superior
to others. The feeling of nationalism is aroused by creating a sense of shared
cultural heritage, the language spoken in the country and the use of some
symbols. Thus history is recreated to serve the interest of nationalism.
History is written to glorify the nation state, heroes are created and
sometimes unreasonable xenophobia (contempt of foreigners) is created in the
minds of the people.
Kjt/29-03-2016
