Module I : Poetry:Some Key Concepts..... composed by K. J. Thomas

Basic Elements of Poetry

1.Prosody – Prosody means all the principles of poetry writing such as metre, rhythm, rhyme and stanza forms.

a. Metre : Metre is a Greek word meaning “metron” or measure. Metre means stressed and unstressed syllables in verse. Example: iambic (unstressed followed by stressed), trochaic (stressed followed by unstressed), anapestic, dactylic and spondee depending upon the number of feet. They are monometer (one feet), dimeter (two), trimester (three), tetrameter (four), pentameter (five), hexameter (six), heptameter (seven), Octameter (eight).

b. Rhythm: Rhythm is also a Greek word meaning “flowing”. This flowing is made possible by the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllable. This flowing is possible in both verse and prose. According to Plato rhythm is the regular flow of verse. Rhythm is the actual sound that comes from a line of stressed and unstressed syllable in a line.

c. Rhyme: It is the similarity of sound at the end of every line. The structure of a syllable is represented as CVC which means the initial consonant or consonant cluster (C),  and V is the vowel sound and final C is the final consonant cluster.  CVC means (alliteration), (assonance) and (consonance).

There are three types of rhymes. They are Hard rhyme, Soft rhyme, and Internal rhyme.

Hard Rhyme: The final accented vowel and all following consonants or syllables are similar. Eg. Time, lime, crime, dime.

Soft Rhyme: Last consonant is the same but not the vowel Eg. Soft, waft.

Internal Rhyme: Rhyme is made in different words in the same line of the poem. Eg. After school, I take a dip in the pool, which is really on the wall.

2.  Alliteration. It is a Latin word meaning repeating and playing upon the same letter. Alliteration is a figure of speech and it is the repetition of an initial consonant or consonant cluster in stressed syllables.   Ex. She sells seashells by the seashore.     “Dull sublunary lovers’ love”  ( John Donne)

3. Assonance: Assonance is also a figure of speech widely used by poets. It is a Latin word “answering with the same sound”.  Assonance is made when two or more words repeat  the same vowel  sound but start with different consonant sounds.  Eg. “Men sell the wedding bells”.  “Whose soul is sense- cannot admit of absence” (John Donne).

4. Diction:  Diction means the vocabulary used by a writer. The diction used by a poet is quite different from the diction used by a novelist or a dramatist. Different kinds of vocabulary are used in different genres of poetry. For example the vocabulary used by a satirist poet like Alexander Pope or W. H. Auden is quite different from the vocabulary used by William Wordsworth who is a Romantic  poet. 

4.   Figures of Speech

      a. Simile :  A comparison between two different things indicated by the word ‘like’ or ‘as’

          Ex. “O my love’s like a red rose, red rose”   - (Robert Burns),

          ‘My dear, you are like a blue lotus to me’.

     b.  Metaphor: A comparison between two different things directly without the usage of ‘like’ or

          ‘as’.  Ex. You are my red rose.     ‘All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women mere

          Players’     -( William Shakespeare)

     c.  Personification:  It is a figure of speech that ascribes human qualities to that which is

          non-human.    Ex. ‘Because I could not stop for Death –

                                           He kindly stopped for me’      - Emily Dickinson

         ‘Can Honour’s voice provoke the silent dust,

         Or Flattery sooth the dull cold ear of Death?        - Thomas Grey

   d.   Oxymoron: It is a figure of speech that brings together opposite or contradictory terms

         Ex. Sweet sorrow

Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate

O heavy lightness, serious vanity,

e. Metonymy: It is also a figure of speech. One thing is applied to another because of a recurrent

    relation in common experience   Ex. The crown or the scepter is used for the term ‘King’.

    Hollywood for film industry. Kolliwood for film industry in Tamilnadu. ‘ But now my oat proceeds,

    And listens to the Herald of the Sea’ – Lycidas ( John Milton)

f.  Synecdoche is also a figure of speech. It is similar to Metonymy.  A part of something need to

    signify the whole. Ex. We use the term ‘ten hands’ for ten workers.  A hundred sails for ships and

    two wheelers  for motor bike  and four wheelers for cars.

    “ This is flesh I’m talking about here. Flesh that needs to be loved. Feet that need to rest and to

    Dance; backs that need support; shoulders that need arms, strong arms I’m telling you.”  Here

    Flesh, feet, backs, shoulders and arms indicate human beings.

g.  Transferred Epithet is a figure of speech.  Here the adjective is transferred from the noun to

    another noun in the sentence.   Ex. I had a hot cup of tea.    John had a sleepless night.

    “The ploughman homeward plods his weary way”     (Thomas Gray – Elegy)

kjt/-25-03-2020

W. H. AUDEN ************** IN MEMORY OF W B YEATS

21.       

Write an essay on the following

1.       “In Memory of WB  Yeats” is not just about Yeats. It is about poetry and poets”. Discuss

2.       Discuss the elegiac elements in “In Memory of W B Yeats”

W H. Auden belongs to the post modern period of English literature. Like Alexander Pope of Neoclassical period, Auden too is a satirical poet. “In Memory of W B Yeats” is a glorious tribute to the great Irish poet by his disciple poet Auden. The poem is an elegy lamenting the irreparable loss of the Irish poet W B Yeats who died on 29^th January 1939 in a hospital in France. The poem has three parts and in the first part of the poem W.H. Auden introduces pathetic fallacy using extended metaphor begins with “He disappeared in the dead of winter” and says that the brooks were frozen, the airports were deserted and the wolves ran through the evergreen forests”. All the countries of Europe were restless because Hitler’s Germany attacked Poland and France and England supported Poland against Germany and it was the beginning of Second World War. The comparison is apt because all the parts of the dying poet rebelled and his mind was empty and the body rejected medicines and finally the poet became his admirers (breathed his last).  This is the elegiac convention practiced by all poets.

In the second section of the poem W.H. Auden describes the main features of the poetry of WB Yeats. The narrator says that the poet was  a man with all the weakness and frailties of a human being. He fell in love with many rich Irish ladies. Lady Gregory, the great Irish dramatist and Maud Gonne are some of his distinguished lady friends. W.B. Yeats with madly in love with his motherland Ireland and composed many patriotic poems to inspire the freedom struggle of Ireland. But his poetry could not reform Irish people nor brought freedom to Ireland. Instead, hundreds and thousands of Irish martyrs were created because British government gave them death punishment. Poetry is always born in isolated minds of the poets. No power on the earth can destroy  the sources of poetry. Many dictators tried to imprison poets, but poetry is emerged out of nothing shocking the megalomaniac dictators. 

In the final section of the elegy “In Memory of WB Yeats”, the narrator pays glorious tribute to the great poet of Ireland. He says “Irish vessel is emptied of its poetry”. Poets are prophets. W. H. Auden speaks about the outbreak of 2^nd World War. He says that the Europe is in spiritual darkness because all the countries bark against each other like mad dogs and the  intellectual community in all these nations are anxiously and helplessly waiting because people are blinded with hatred of their neighbor, leading to war. Therefore, W. H. Auden asks us to follow the poet because poetry always leads through the right path of life. In the Bible God cursed Adam and Eve to earn their daily bread and butter by hard work,  but the poets like WB Yeats converts the curse into a beautiful vineyard for human beings by singing of the failures and frailties of human life and fill human hearts with the spirit of love and peace. Although human life is a prison of difficulties and problems, poets teach us to praise each other and wipe out hatred and ill will.                                                 Kjt/-20-03-2020

ALEXANDER POPE ************* ESSAY ON MAN ( Epistle I, Section II )

20.             )

Write an essay on the following

1.       How does the poem ‘vindicate the ways of God to man?”

2.       The poem is a reflection on the reigning scientific thought of the day. Discuss

3.       Discuss Alexander Pope as a Neoclassical poet.

 “Essay on Man” is a neoclassical poem written by Alexander Pope one of the greatest of the Neoclassical poets in English literature. Neoclassical period began from 1660 and ended in 1798 and Romantic period began with the publication of “Lyrical Ballads” by William Wordsworth and S. T. Coleridge. Neoclassical period is also known as the Augustan period because the poets of this period tried to imitate the style of the ancient Greek and Roman writers like Homer and Virgil and others. The distinguished writers of Neoclassical period are Alexander Pope, John Dryden, Jonathan Swift, Oliver Goldsmith, Dr. Johnson, Daniel Defoe and others. This was also the period of the Enlightenment which gave importance to logic and reason.

“Essay on Man” is a philosophical poem. The theme of the poem is the justification of God’s ways to man. Neoclassical Age is marked by a spirit of rationalism and scientific temper. Isaac Newton was the greatest scientist of the period. Alexander Pope had great respect and admiration for  the great scientist. God has created every creature in perfect condition, giving them all the qualities they need. Man in his pride questions the ways of God. The universe is infinite and man’s knowledge is very limited. Many things we call wrong must be right because right and wrong depends on the way we look at things.

The proud horse does not know why man controls him from taking its own freedom or drives him over the plains. Similarly, the dull ox does not know why he is used to plough the land. Sometimes a creature becomes a victim and in another time he becomes a ruler. In the Bible we see the story of Joseph who was sold as a slave by his wicked brothers, but the same Joseph became the ruler of Egypt and his own brothers became beggars before Joseph. Man can understand these things only if he uses his reasoning power. We have no right to say man is imperfect or God is at fault. But we should understand that man is as perfect as God wanted him to be. Man is given limited knowledge to suit his place and position. He is given a particular place to live just as the fish is given a particular place to live.

The poem is written in the form of heroic couplet in which two lines written in iambic pentameter, ending with perfect rhymes. The defect of Neoclassical poetry is that too much logic and reason is applied by the poet leading to artificiality and worn out bombastic phrases and lifeless personifications which destroy the beauty and spontaneity of the poem. This is why William Wordsworth and S.T. Coleridge introduced “Lyrical Ballads” which opened a new era called Romanticism.                                                 Kjt/- 20-03-2020

BASSEY IKPI ********** HOMEWARD

19.  

Write an essay on the following

1.       Analyze “Homeward” as a lament on a diminished culture.

2.       The cultural divide and is complex emotional nuances are transacted effectively  by Ikpi through the genre of Spoken word poetry – Discuss

Bassey Ikpi’s poem “Homeward” is a Spoken word poem speaks about the pain of the narrator who is torn between the divided culture and nationalities. Ikpi was in Nigeria to  her Nigerian parents of black background. But in her childhood days she was taken to America just like an uprooted plant. The poem is about her divided nationalities of Nigeria and American dichotomy. Iron bird is the aero-plane that represents the modern life of the USA. The grandmother has not seen an aero-plane and she thinks it is an iron bird, because it flies like a bird.

 Although she was born in Nigeria, she was brought up in American soil imbibing the culture and civilization of the USA. But she wants to be  a Naija girl. Nigeria is her mother land and she wants to grow old and die in the  soil of Nigeria. But the American culture and language cannot be rejected by her. At the same time, she wants to eat Nigerian food items like chin-chin, fuufuu, gari and banana fried in palm oil.

 She prefers the frankness of Nigerian villagers to the hypocrisy of the modern American people. In Nigeria there is more love among family members and relatives than what is found in Western culture.  Western culture is  mechanical whereas Nigerian culture is more frank, sincere and warmth. They respect elders and old parents with love and mercy. In short the poem “Homeward” is a lament for diminished culture.        Kjt/-20-03-2020

JOAO CABRAL DE MELO NETO ********** LANDSCAPE OF THE CAPIBARIBE RIVER

18.     

Write an essay on the following

1.       Cabral’s poem is about environmental degradation. Discuss

2.       Cabral’s poem is as much about the river as it is about landscape. Substantiate

3.       To what extent can  “Landscape of the Cpibaribe River” be seen as a consciousness raising poem?

Joao Cabral De Melo  Neto is the most famous poet of Brazil. Cabral’s central image for the river is a dog. Rivers are the  mirrors of human culture and they are the cradles of civilization. But now rivers all over the world carry the burdens of human crime and deeds of destruction. Every where we see air pollution, sound pollution, soil pollution and water pollution. Capibaribe river in Brazil is no exception. Cabral cries about the environmental pollution of the Capibaribe river. The river is slowly and steadily dying for want of cleanliness and fresh flow of water. Once upon a time the river was the cradle of all varieties of fish, tortoise, octopus and other water creatures. But they are all dead and gone. Instead the river is full of silt, mud and rust and human wastes and night soil thrown into the river. The hospitals and factories discharge their effluents into  the river and the water is polluted. The poet if human beings continue to create  pollution and destructive activities, the Capibaribe River will be converted into a waste land with accumulation of silt, mud and mangroves and the riverscape becomes a dirty landscape.

The poem is built on a number of absences and presences. The river does not know the  pure  blue rain, the rose coloured fountain, the drinking water in the pitcher and the breeze on water. These images of pure water is absent. The poet now speaks about the things that the river knows. The river knows silt, mud, and  rust which pollute the river. As the river is stagnant because of flow of water is almost stopped, many mangroves are grown in  the river. The poet has employed many effective similes and metaphors. The river is smooth like the bulging belly of a pregnant dog. The sugar factories on the banks of the river is compared to huge trees dripping sugar into the river and  pollute the water flow. The river is almost stagnant and move slowly like an old man struggling to walk with a heavy burden on his back. 

In the end of the poem the poet asks the readers many questions. These questions are effective poetic techniques to make the readers aware of the cultural degradation of human beings all over the world. “These cultured families” neglect the flow and substance of the rivers and still engage in scientific, technical and literary activities while rivers are dying slowly everywhere. Once these rivers were enriched with pure water to drink and there were all kinds water creatures like fish and octopus and people carried water in pitchers from the river to drink, bath and clean house yards. At that time river water was glossy blue. Today the water turns to yellow and muddy colour. KJT/-20-03-2020.

CHARLES BAUDELAIRE *********** BE DRUNK

17.           

Write an essay on the following

1.       The poem as a celebration of life

2.       The poem as an indictment of modern life.

Charles Baudelaire is a great French poet whose magnum opus is “Flowers of Evil” an anthology of his poetry, which dealt with the two taboo topics like sex and lesbianism. As a child he had a strong fixation towards his mother. His father’s death gave him the opportunity to be close to his mother. But when his mother married again, he lost his motherly love and he was in atraumatic condition. But his stepfather’s death brought him back to his mother and he declares with pride: “I belong to you absolutely, an that I belong only to you”. Baudelaire won acclaim in the literary field on translating the poetry of Edgar Allan Poe, the great American poet and novelist.

“Be Drunk” is a simple poem written by Charles Baudelaire is a celebration of life. The poet asks his readers to get drunk from anything they like – wine, poetry or virtue and makes sure that they are happy. The poet says that you have to be drunk which means get intoxicated with anything such as wine, poetry, music, art and literature or doing good things for the people around you. You have to be continually drunk so that you don’t feel the terrible burden of time.

In his poem “Be Drunk”, Charles Baudelaire gives us a new meaning of “drunk”. Usually drink means drink liquor and you will be intoxicated. But the poet gives a new meaning to “drunk” which means get intoxicated with anything in life. You may get intoxicated when you are indulged in too much music or poetry, literature, art or doing good things for the people and thereby do service to mankind. In short you should enjoy life to its maximum, so that you for get your slavery of life, its hard work and other terrible pains and burdens of time. Time is portrayed as the enemy of man. Time is a villain which makes you grow old and sick and finally you are killed.  The poet uses two metaphors in the poem. First is life which is intoxicated to escape from the terrible burdens of time. The second metaphor is Time which is shown as the enemy of man. Most people suffer sorrow and pain and lead life like a slave. They are the “‘martyred slaves of time”.     Kjt/- 20-03-2020

YEHUDA AMICHAI *********** ANNIVERSARIES OF WAR

16.      

Write an essay on the following

1.       “Anniversaries of War” uses personal memory and collective history – Comment

Yehuda Amichai is a great Jewish poet of Israel. He is Israel’s poet laureate. Although he was born in Germany, he fled to  Israel because of Nazi persecution. He fought in three wars but he is a pacifist. The poem is about  the narrator’s visit to Tel Gath, the birth place of Goliath who fought against David in the Old Testament of the Bible. The poet took his children to the mount of Tel Gath which is now a grave yard of thousands of soldiers who fought and killed in wars. Interestingly the narrator was also a soldier and fought many wars there. He brought his children there so that they should learn what he did and what he did not do. In old days he fought bravely,  but it was a foolish thing. Now he is thinking about the past and the present. He is now wiser than when he was a soldier.

Standing on the mount of Tel Gath, the poet describes the beauty of Nature. A light afternoon wind blows and some people are walking up the mount. In the power of the wind, people are bending down. Green grass, flowers and dandelions cover the ground. Together they all become a multitude of dandelions, the flower that represent love and peace.

Now the poet and his children are sitting on the mount of Tel Gath and enjoy the beauty of Nature. Then he thought of Shmuel He-Nagid, the great poet and scholar who was also a soldier like Yehuda Amichai.

The poem is a journey through time.  Yehuda Amichai fuses personal memory and collective history. The narrator is teaching his children history, war and the history of war. In war a soldier is judged by what he did and what he did not do. As the day moves forward, the poet thinks backward and falls into an optimistic mood. He thinks of the battles in the past and thinks of Shmeul Ha-Nagid who was a poet soldier just as Yehuda Amichai.                     Kjt/-20-03-2020